Time Period 8 - Late Roman, Early Christian, Byzantine Art

The Middle Ages - c. 180 B.C. - 1453 A.D. Late Roman Empire - c. 284 - 610 A.D. Early Christianity - c 180 - 500 A.D. Byzantium - c. 330 - 1453 A.D.

Quick Overview

• In 323 A.D., Constantine the Great moved capital of Roman Empire to Byzantium
• Split of the Roman Empire caused split in religions - Western Catholic Church / Eastern Orthodox Church
• Western art based on the tenets of Christianity

In 323 A.D., Constantine the Great, Emperor of Rome, made a fateful decision to move the capital of the Roman Empire to the Greek town of Byzantium. He then changed its name to Constantinople, now Istanbul, Turkey. In moving the capital, he acknowledged the growing importance of the Eastern provinces as well as its economic growth. This new capital represented a strength in the growth of Christianity in the Roman state, and it was positioned in the heart of the most Christianized region of the Empire. Christianity soon became the official religion of the Empire. Unfortunately, within one hundred years after the death of Constantine, this move split the Roman Empire. Slowly the Western Empire fell prey to invading Germanic tribes; and by the end of the 6th c., the last trace of centralized authority in the west disappeared.

The Eastern or Byzantine Empire survived the changes. Under Emperor Justinian (527-565 A.D.), it attained a new power and stability. Not until one hundred years later did parts of this region fall to the peoples of the Arab world with the rise of Islam in Africa and the Near East.

The development of Christianity is very important to understand in this time period because during the Middle Ages and much of the Renaissance, all of the art of Christianized Europe was based on the teachings of Christianity, its roots in the Byzantine.

Throughout early Roman history, the conquered people of the Empire—Greeks, Egyptians, and others—were not forced to change their religious beliefs. If they made a yearly contribution to the Emperor, all was fine. In this atmosphere of religious freedom, the Christian Church and the followers of Jesus Christ spread their teachings. With its basic tenets, Christianity brought a hope and strength that much of Western Europe was awaiting.

Jesus was born among the Jews (4 B.C.-30 A.D.). The Jewish God had communicated with the people for centuries through His prophets. It was written in the Old Testament that people should live by the laws, the commandments, for they were the way to please Him. A prophet, Jesus of Nazareth, also taught that to love God was to also love other human beings and that this was more important than singular obedience to the commandments. He professed a message that gave the power of redemption to all those who believed in the power of Christ. People who believed in Him would be resurrected at the end of life to spend eternity with Him in Heaven. These teachings greatly pleased common followers. To them, He was God's son, the Savior of the World, as prophesied in the Old Testament. These followers of Jesus were eager to carry this message of the coming of the Messiah to all parts of the Empire.

There were other cities of Christian faith that existed before Constantinople: Alexandria in Egypt and Antioch in Syria (present-day Antakya, Turkey). But little is left from these cities to trace the development of Christian art.

In Rome, there was a valuable source of information found on the walls of the catacombs. These catacombs were underground passageways just outside the main city that covered more than 500 miles. On their walls were thousands of inscriptions offering evidence of how people believed, how they worshiped, and what their religion meant to them. Paintings in fresco described Biblical figures with scenes expressing the Christian hope in immortality, faith in the real body of Christ in the Eucharist, and a devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary. They were not portrayed realistically, as they had been in earlier paintings; instead, they were symbolic. Realism was not important to the Early Christian artist; instead, his purposet was to communicate the message of a religious practice or idea. This concept of symbolism changed the course of art for several centuries.

In the first centuries, followers of the Christian teachings were alternately tolerated and persecuted in Rome. Believers were persecuted and blamed for the troubles within the Roman Empire. They escaped torture and death by hiding and worshiping in these catacombs, places of seclusion and safety. Here, the dead were also buried. The burial rite and safeguarding of the tomb were of vital importance to Early Christians, whose faith rested on the hope of eternal life in paradise. Stairways were found that led down to the graves which began at a depth of thirty feet. Graves were in tiers of three or more for each level or story, and were about four stories below the floor of the catacomb. The Roman catacombs contained about 2,000,000 graves.

Take a side trip to - visit the Catacombs and then complete...... Late Roman: Tell Me about the Catacombs - Exam

The Middle Ages Late Roman/Early Christian Art Historical & Cultural

Architecture

• Old Roman basilicas were redesigned
• Plan of Santa Costanza & Interior, Rome 350 A.D.
• Basilica of Santa Sabina, Rome 422 B.C. - 32 A.D.

After the first centuries, the worshippers of Christianity grew and became more accepted. Congregations met in the homes of the wealthier followers. Then, with Constantine the Emperor and Christianity the state religion, larger places of worship were built in both the Western and Eastern Empires. The older Roman basilicas were redesigned by architects to become churches.

Typical basilica plan

The first plans called for a long, brick building with a wooden roof. At the front of the structure was an atrium—a courtyard with a covered walkway around it. Entrances were at the corners in the back of the structure. The nave or central part of the basilica was for worship. It was flanked by side aisles, separated by a row of columns. Windows, which flooded the room with light, were located above the columns. The apse was a semi-circular area in front of the nave. It was covered with a half-dome. The altar was placed in the center of the apse and always had a canopy or baldachin over it. The altar was made of carved wood or stone.

Take a side trip - visit the Basilica of Santa Sabina.

Separating the nave from the apse was an arch, which symbolized the victory of Christ over eternal death. Crypts were often built under the raised apse to provide a burial space for church leaders. Most of the interior wall was highly decorated with frescos and mosaics. They told stories of Christian teachings and expanded the development of narrative painting. This mural painting described the written word in image, and opened the message of the Bible to all who gazed.

The polygonal or round structural designs of the Roman bath became a source of architectural inspiration for similar structures built to serve as monumental tombs or mausoleums. The finest example is Santa Constanza, the mausoleum of Constantine's daughter, Constantia.

Take a side trip - visit inside the vault of Constantia.



Take a side trip - visit Santa Constanza.

This general plan of the basilica was enlarged and elaborated as time passed. It became the basis for European cathedrals in the Renaissance. About forty of the three hundred basilicas of this era are still in use today, although most have been remodeled.

The Mosaics

The church became the center of activity, a place of solace, of reverence, of divine life. As the church was entered, rays of light and colors, shimmering mosaics, and marble evoked the unearthly splendor of the Kingdom of God. The toils and troubles of daily life could be left outside.

Take a side trip - visit the mosaics of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Be sure to enlarge these images.....

The mosaics of early churches developed a character all their own. Earlier, the Romans designed with marble tesserae, which had a limited range of colors and was used mainly on floors. In comparison, the mosaics of the 4th century A.D. were made of glass and brilliant in color. They were limited in tonal value and could not easily copy the painted image. Instead, they were designed to reflect light, producing a dazzling interaction between image and illusion of divine place, creating a feeling of other-worldliness.

The Manuscripts

These early mosaics contained symbols of faith, illustrating scenes from the Old and New Testament. Through these images, a dialogue or communication could take place. For those who could read, the Bible took the form of the illuminated manuscript, a bound collection of painted pages.

This miniature from the Vatican Vergil, 400 A.D. (left), shows text with its image separated by a heavy black frame. It has the effect of a window with a landscape showing perspective and a play of light and shade.

The image from the Vienna Genesis, 500 A.D. (right), is written in silver on purple vellum and decorated with brighly painted miniatures that were part of the total page design. This detail shows a part of the story of Jacob. It does not show a single event but a continuing narrative, a running account of an event, unlike the Vatican Vergil which was a single, framed image. Manuscripts of this kind could tell a continuing story in fewer pages.

Visit the Rare Books Room, and then complete the....... Rare Books Exam.

A Short History on the Book Form

The exact development of the book format is not entirely known. The Egyptians made a writing surface from papyrus reeds. They rolled it in scrolls and unrolled to read. The Torah, sacred Jewish scripture, is still read this way today in synagogues. However, the rolled surfaces were not ideal to write on, as paints flaked and peeled when the scrolls were rolled and unrolled.

In the Late Hellenistic Period—3rd century B.C.—a parchment or vellum writing surface was developed from thin, bleached animal hide. It was strong enough to be creased without breaking, and it was possible to connect together in a binding process much like we do today. Early "books" were called a codex, and they gradually replaced the scroll.

On the pages of the illuminated manuscript, small paintings or "tiny murals" were painted. Their purpose was to create a surface that reflected light and gave the feeling of a divine place. Gold leaf and rich colored pigments were used. These illustrations described the written word. Each illumination was painted in great detail and showed a proficent skill in the use of perspective. A wide border of designs painted in gold leaf bordered the illustration.

The Fresco Paintings

What has survived of Early Christian painting has been preserved in the catacombs. The imagery of the tomb walls expresses an "otherwordly" outlook, although the main style of fresco painting still remained Roman. Gradually, traditional imagery conveyed a new, symbolic meaning.

Go to Christian Symbolism to complete this exam........ Christian Symbolism Exam.

Walls were painted quickly and imprecisely; the non-symbolic meaning of the forms were of little significance. Instead, the symbolic meaning was the primary focus of the fresco artist. The great circle that formed the dome in Roman basilicas became the center of the cross, the main symbol of Christian faith. The youthful shepherd carrying a sheep can be traced from Archaic Greece, and became a symbol for Christ the Savior. Hands raised became the symbol for prayer, for divine help.

Of course, not all frescoes were religious in nature. Take a side trip - visit the Catacomb of Pretestato for a look at Olive Picking and The Harvest. Rome - 250 A.D.


Sculpture

Faith rested on the hope of eternal life in Paradise: The Good Shepherd - 350 A.D. - Vatican Museum, Rome Marble Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus - Rome - 359 A.D. Projecta's Casket - 370 A.D. Ivory Diptych - scenes from the life of Christ - 500 A.D.

Let's have a discussion.....visit a gallery of symbolic sculptures.

Compared to painting and architecture, sculpture played a secondary role in Early Christian times. The earliest pieces were coffin-like boxes of stone carved completely in relief, called sarcophagi (singular: sarcophagus). This practice of sculptured burial coffins started in Roman times, and the wealthier Early Christians continued it.

Take a side trip - visit a Sarcophagus with scenes from the passion of Christ.

The sculpture, The Good Shepherd, in the free-standing Roman style, was one of the last Christian art pieces that was carved in a realistic, rather than symbolic, style. The shepherd became the symbol of Christ, and in early years was portrayed as youthful and serene.

Sculptures were smaller in comparison to the monumental sculpture of the Roman Empire. Larger sculptures were considered "graven images," and prohibited according to the New Testament. Shallow, relief carving and lace-like surface decoration became a characteristic style of Early Christian sculpture.

Go to the Kelsey Museum of Archeology for reference, and then complete the .... Kelsey Museum Exam.

The Middle Ages Byzantine Art Historical & Cultural 330 A.D. - 1453 A.D.

Quick Overview

• Rise of the faith of Islam
• Turks finally conquered Constantinople - 1453 A.D.
• Proto-Byzantine Period - 330 A.D. - 726 A.D.
• Justinian reached new power and stability - Golden Age of Byzantium
• Iconoclast Period - 726 A.D. - 843 A.D.
• Byzantine Renaissance - 843 A.D. - 1057 A.D.
• Middle Byzantine Period - 1057 A.D. - 1204 A.D.
• Late Byzantine Period - 1261 A.D. - 1453 A.D.

Constantine's legalization of Christianity was crucial for the development of the Byzantine Empire. Christianity became the official religion of the Empire, and of Medieval Europe as well. Pagan cults diminished in importance.

Take a side trip to the site of Christ's Death & Resurrection. Complete the...... Holy Sepulchre Exam.

After the death of Constantine I in 337 A.D., the Roman Empire was officially split into Eastern and Western Empires. The city of Rome in the west had lost its tremendous power. Rome became a provincial town and after another period of chaos, all of Italy was devastated.

In 527 A.D., Justinian ascended the throne of the Eastern Empire in the capital of Constantinople. Under the rule of Justinian, most of southern Italy was regained. Ravenna, on the east coast, was the new center of power. Justinian's reign began the Golden Age of Byzantine culture and art.

Take a side trip - look at a Map of the Byzantine Empire.

Take another side trip to explore The Glory of Byzantium.

Architecture

An age of architectural masterpieces: San Vitale - Ravenna, Italy - 526 - 547 A.D. Hagia Sophia - Istanbul, Turkey - 532 - 537 A.D. Sant Appollinaire - Ravenna, Italy - 533 - 549 A.D. St. Mark's - Venice, Italy, begun in 1063 A.D. Cathedral of St. Basil - Moscow, Russia - 1554 - 1566 A.D.

Proto-Byzantine Period
330 A.D. - 726 A.D.

It was this age that produced the greatest architectural designs, expressed in the form of churches. The richest examples were not built in Constantinople but in Ravenna, Italy. All were of a plain brick exterior, with little decoration. But inside, they were filled with brilliant mosaics and colored marbles, and had richly gilded ceilings.

The best example was built under the reign of Justinian, San Vitale (left). It is a large octagonal building with a dome over the central core. The interior space is almost entirely filled with mosaics.

Take a side trip - visit San Vitale.

When Justinian rebuilt the capital, Constantinople, he rebuilt a large basilica, the Hagia Sophia, Church of Holy Wisdom. It was designed by the two architects Anthemus of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletos. It was unique and unlike any built before. It combined the long, open-space main room of the basilica with a centralized dome, like a rotunda. It was a structural challenge to place the huge, round dome on the square supporting walls of the main room.

With a row of arched windows at its base, a sensation of floating was created. Against the large, domed cube in the center, are two half-domes that give a feeling of length. At the time of its construction, it had the largest interior of the time. It took six years to build. The interior walls were completely covered with brilliantly colored and gilded mosaics, with windows looking up to the heavens. When the Muslims converted the Hagia Sophia to a mosque, all of the mosaics were either scraped from the walls or covered with plaster because their religion did not permit any likenesses of people. Over the walls, geometric designs were painted. The minarets that flank the corners were also added in 1453, during its reconstruction as a mosque.

Today, most of the mosaics that were left have been restored and the Hagia Sophia is now a museum.

Take a side trip to explore the Eternal Monument - Hagia Sophia .

This domed-construction design became the style of the later Byzantine churches, as well as Renaissance domed buildings, and, later, influenced architectural styles in the United States and other parts of the world.

Iconoclast Period
726 A.D. - 843 A.D.

Use the Iconoclastic Controversy to complete the...... Iconoclastic Controversy Exam.

Iconoclasm was instituted by Emperor Leo III. He was an adventurer from Isauria, an ancient district in southern Turkey. He acquired a deep hatred of all images, particularly of icons, which where believed to be endowed with mysterious powers that could work miracles by intervention from the saints. Although opposed by his clergy and his people, Leo joined the iconoclasts and formally prohibited the creation of religious works in a representational form in 726 A.D. This was the beginning of the Iconoclastic Controversy, which was to define and decline the creation of art in the Byzantine Empire for over a century. This caused a split in the church, the iconoclasts wanting to destroy natural-looking images, while others in the church wanted to retain them. Countless works of art were destroyed under his leadership. Limited art was produced for over one hundred years.

Byzantine Renaissance
843 A.D. - 1057 A.D.

The second phase evolved under a dynasty of Macedonian emperors. Called The Byzantine Renaissance, it was a classical revival of political, religious, and artistic endeavors that followed the iconclastic controversy. The bitter split caused by iconoclasm turned artists toward secular themes inspired by ancient classic models. The art of this period is distinguished by colorful and patterned compositions.

Middle Byzantine Period
1057 A.D. - 1204 A.D.

The third phase began with the reign of Isaac Comnenus and ended with the Latin conquest of Constantinople. The city was ransacked by French and Venetian troops of the Fourth Crusade, and held for more than a century. It then brought in a Second Golden Age of Byzantium, distinguished by a fusion of Hellenistic, Roman, and Near Eastern elements in a full-blown Byzantine style. It was characterized by a vibrant use of pattern and design in interior decoration, and did not focus primarily only on symbolic meaning. A new architectural plan was designed, the Greek cross. St. Mark's, in Venice, remains the masterpiece of this time.

The plan of the Greek cross (left), had four arms of equal length contained in a square with the apse at one end of the arm, with a domed ceiling resting on a square base.

As you view St. Mark's (right), you can see on each arm there is a dome. Around the walls were 2,643 colored marble columns brought from Constantinople by the Crusaders. The interior walls were covered with mosaics of both Venetian and Byzantine glass. There were four horses over the main entrance, also brought from Constantinople. They are assumed to be original bronzes from Greece - 300 B.C. Later, in the Gothic period, pictorial mosaics and spires were added to all but one entrance.

Late Byzantine Period
1261 A.D. - 1453 A.D.

The final phase began with the expulsion of the Latins by the Palaeologan Dynasty and ended with the Turkish conquest of Constantinople. Although the arts flourished, the empire was impoverished and was already in decline. The churches built during this period were smaller and less richly decorated, with more attention to the exterior ornament in patterned brickwork and frescos, instead of mosaics on the inner walls.

Byzantine architecture and Eastern Orthodox religion spread over Eastern Europe and into the center of Russia. Churches here were constructed of wood. The most famous of these is the Cathedral of St. Basil (right), in Moscow. It is located across Red Square from the Kremlin.

Its domes are of the onion-shape style and brilliantly painted in patterns of color.

Mosaics, Manuscripts, and Frescos

Walls and ceilings were illuminated with light: Justinian and Attendants - Mosaic, San Vitale, Ravenna, 547 A.D. The Crucifixion. - Mosaic, Monastery Church, Daphne, Greece, 11th c. Enthroned Madonna and Child - Tempera on panel, Late 13th. c.

Take a side trip to see the...... Byzantine Mosaics.

Proto-Byzantine Period
330 A.D. - 726 A.D.

In Justinian and Attendants, the emperor is surrounded by his courtiers. The figures are serene and beautiful, extraordinarily tall, slim with tiny feet. The faces dominated by large eyes seem to be in ceremony and show no image of movement. The overall feeling is not of earthly space, but of solemn, eternal presence.This mosaic strongly reflects the union of spiritual and the political authority that became part of the divine kinship of the Byzantine emperors.

Take a side trip with a fellow traveling photographer..........Justinian and Attendents.

Iconoclast Period
726 A.D. - 843 A.D.

The development of Byzantine painting was disrupted by the Iconoclastic Controversy in 726 A.D. with the prohibition of creating religious images in representational form. This was a conflict that went very deep in regards to issues between Church and State, and the human relationship with the divine in the person of Christ. This period reduced the production of sacred images. However, secular art was not affected.

Byzantine Renaissance
843 A.D. - 1057 A.D.

By 843 A.D., sacred images began to reappear with a strong interweaving of secular motifs. The finest works of this Second Golden Age show a reappearance of Classicism. This revived Classicism merged the ideals of harmony with the spiritualized ideal of human beauty. This new resurgence inspired emotional art, which focused on gestures and facial expressions rather than solely physical actions. Religious art focused on Christ's sacrificial death, instead of on the Savior's divine wisdom and power, reflective of Early Christian art.

In The Crucifixion (right), no longer is Christ portrayed as youthful and serene. Instead, there is an overbearing suffering. This quality of compassion was the greatest achievement of the Late Byzantine Period.

For church use and for devotion of those who could read, there were illustrated Bibles. The images painted in these small miniatures were narrative. Rather than being humanistic and showing the joys and sorrows of mankind, they were formal and strictly controlled by the church. showing a dogmatic system of salvation.

Late Byzantine Period
1261 A.D. - 1453 A.D.

Paintings show a trend toward realism, but the figures still suggested a stiff movement. This style, however, inspired the early Renaissance painters Giotto and Cimabue, and later the paintings of El Greco.

Most two-dimensional artworks of the Byzantine were mosaics, although some mural painting was done toward the end of the Empire. Most of the effort was focused toward the painting of small icons on wooden panels. These were used for worship in homes. Larger iconostases were used for separation screens in churches. Artists used egg tempera, combining gold to create brilliant backgrounds to highlight the forms.

In Enthroned Madonna and Child (left), the hands and faces are realistic, reflecting a Roman influence, while the poses and background are symbolic and abstract.

There was still a reluctance to give holy figures a detailed human experience. The robes appear flat, resembling a pattern of sunbursts found in Oriental art of this period. In keeping with the Byzantine tradition, the meaning was much more important than the accurate description of reality.

Sculpture Sculpture was for the interior of churches: The Archangel Michael (right) - Ivory diptych 5th c. British Museum, London. What influences do you see from Greek and Roman figure sculpture?

Monumental sculpture did not exist in the Byzantine culture, but small architectural sculptures decorated the interiors of the churches. Most were either destroyed or lost during the Crusades as they were carried back to Central Europe. Small Ivory panels were also carved. The Archangel Michael is part of a diptych hinged together. The drapery and the style of the figure are an excellent example of the Classical Period of Greece combined with Christian ideas and needs.

Extensions

Extra Credit Exam...... - Other Materials & Techniques

The Middle Ages
Late Roman, Early Christian, Byzantine Art


Aesthetics & Art Criticism

Complete the .........

Late Roman: Compare and Contrast Diptychs Exam using the examples below:

Go to Images from World History and examine the differences and similarities between diptychs 1, 3, and 6. Click on the thumbnails to see larger images.

Create Create a diptych of your own! Make a three-dimensional piece in the Byzantine style. Send your original "Create" project or a scanned image of your piece of art to me. Remember, when submitting digital work, upload it to your student folder by going to "My Tools," and then clicking on "Folders." Choose the file you want to upload. After uploading, scroll to the bottom of the page to make sure that it's associated with a specific assignment and MOST IMPORTANTLY that you "submit for grading." This triggers an e-mail to me that I have work to grade :)
	Example

E-mail your Instructor that you have completed this time period.

This completes our journey (for now). We've traveled from 35000 B.C. to 1453 A.D. I hope that you've enjoyed the trip and are inspired to continue your studies of art. There is so much more—the rest of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, Romanticism, Impressionism, Cubism, other "isms," all the way to the Modern Years, where our present culture is designing the art styles that will influence future generations.

It has been my pleasure to be your guide!